Timeline of science fiction

This is a timeline of science fiction as a literary tradition.

16th century

Year	Event	Literary History	Historical Events
1516	Thomas More publishes Utopia.^[1]

17th century

New Atlantis
Title page of the 1628 edition of Bacon's New Atlantis
Author	Francis Bacon
Country	United Kingdom
Language	Latin/English
Genre	Utopian novel
Publisher	H3Ewald
Publication date	1624/1626
Media type	Print (hardback)
Pages	46 pp

Kircher's magnetic clock.

Year	Event	Literary History	Historical Events
1619	Johann Valentin Andreae publishes Christianopolis.^[2]
1623	Tommaso Campanella publishes The City of the Sun.^[2]
1627	Francis Bacon publishes New Atlantis.^[1]
1634	Johannes Kepler publishes A Dream.^[1]
1638	Francis Godwin publishes The Man in the Moone.^[1]
1656	Athanasius Kircher publishes Itinerarium Exstaticum (Ecstatic Journey).^[3]
1666	Margaret Cavendish publishes The Blazing World.^[3]
1686	Bernard de Fontenelle publishes Discussion of the Plurality of Worlds.^[1]^[1]

18th century

Year	Event	Literary history	Historical events
1733	Samuel Madden publishes Memoirs of the Twentieth Century
1741	Ludvig Holberg publishes Niels Klim's Underground Travels.^[1]
1752	Voltaire publishes Micromégas.^[1]
1765	Marie-Anne de Roumier-Robert publishes Voyage de Milord Céton dans les Sept Planètes (Journeys of Lord Seton in Seven Planets).^[4]
1771	Louis-Sébastien Mercier publishes The Year 2440.^[1]
1780	The Passage from the North to the South Pole is published anonymously in France.^[4]

19th century

The Island of Doctor Moreau
First edition cover
Author	H. G. Wells
Country	United Kingdom
Language	English
Genre	Science fiction
Publisher	Heinemann, Stone & Kimball
Publication date	1896
Media type	Print (hardcover)
Pages	209 p.
Preceded by	The Wonderful Visit
Followed by	The Wheels of Chance

The Steam Man of the Prairies
Beadle's American Novel No. 45, August 1868, featuring "The Steam Man of the Prairies"
Author	Edward S. Ellis
Series	Frank Reade
Genre	Science fiction
Published	1868

Year	Event	Literary history	Historical events
1805	Jean-Baptiste Cousin de Grainville publishes The Last Man.^[1]		Napoleon becomes First Consul of France in 1800 and then Emperor of France in 1804.^[5]
1814	E. T. A. Hoffmann publishes The Automata ^[6]
1816	E. T. A. Hoffmann publishes The Sandman (short story) ^[6]
1818	Mary Shelley publishes Frankenstein.^[1]	Jane Austen dies in 1817.^[5]	Napoleon is defeated at Waterloo in 1815. United States buys Florida from Spain in 1819.^[5]
1826	Mary Shelley publishes The Last Man.^[1]		Charles Babbage develops the concept of the difference engine, the world's first computer in 1822.^[5]
1827	Jane Webb Loudon publishes The Mummy!.^[1]
1835	Edgar Allan Poe publishes "Hans Phaal".^[7]
1839	Edgar Allan Poe publishes the short story "The Conversation of Eiros and Charmion".^[7]
1844	Nathaniel Hawthorne publishes Rappaccini's Daughter.
1848	Edgar Allan Poe publishes Eureka: A Prose Poem.^[1]		The Revolutions of 1848 occur.^[5]
1851	Jules Verne publishes A Voyage in a Balloon.^[8]		Louis-Napoleon comes to power in France.^[8]
1859	Hermann Lang publishes The Air Battle: a Vision of the Future.^[9]
1863	Jules Verne publishes From the Earth to the Moon.^[9]
1864	Camille Flammarion publishes Real and Imaginary Worlds^[4]
1865	Jules Verne publishes From the Earth to the Moon.^[1]		American Civil War is fought from 1861-1865. It introduces mechanized warfare.^[8]
1868	Edward S. Ellis publishes The Steam Man of the Prairies, the first SF dime novel.^[8]
1870	Jules Verne publishes Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea.^[1]
1871	George T. Chesney publishes the novella The Battle of Dorking.^[1] Edward Bulwer-Lytton publishes The Coming Race.^[1]
1872	Samuel Butler publishes Erewhon^[8]
1886	Robert Louis Stevenson publishes Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde^[8]
1887	Camille Flammarion publishes Lumen.^[1] W. H. Hudson publishes A Crystal Age.^[1]
1888	Edward Bellamy publishes Looking Backward, 2000-1887.^[1]
1889	Mark Twain publishes A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court.^[1] Camille Flammarion publishes Uranie.^[9]
1890	William Morris publishes News from Nowhere.^[1]
1893	Camille Flammarion publishes Omega: The Last Days of the World.^[9]
1895	H. G. Wells publishes The Time Machine.^[1]		The Lumière Brothers show the first motion films in 1895.^[8]
1896	H. G. Wells publishes The Island of Doctor Moreau.^[1]
1897	Kurd Lasswitz publishes On Two Planets.^[1]
1898	H. G. Wells publishes The War of the Worlds.^[1]

1900s

Year	Event	Literary history	Historical events
1900	L. Frank Baum publishes The Wonderful Wizard of Oz.^[10]		The British Empire engages in the Boer War. The 16th World Exhibition takes place in Paris. Art Nouveau challenges Jugendstil.^[10]
1901	H. G. Wells publishes The First Men in the Moon.^[1] M. P. Shiel publishes The Purple Cloud.^[1]
1903			The Wright brothers usher in the era of heavier than air flight with their successful flight of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, break away from the Mensheviks.^[10]
1905	Rudyard Kipling publishes the short story "With the Night Mail".^[11]		Albert Einstein postulates the light quantum, proves that atoms exist, and publishes on the Special Theory of Relativity.^[12]
1907	Jack London publishes The Iron Heel.^[11]	William James publishes Pragmatism^[12]	The first helicopter, designed by Paul Cornu, flies for 20 seconds. Leo Baekeland invents Bakelite, the first commercially produced plastic. The Lusitania launches for the first time.^[12]
1909	E. M. Forster publishes the novella The Machine Stops.^[11] Filippo Tommaso Marinetti founds the Futurist Movement with the publication of Il Manifesto del Futurismo (Futurist Manifesto).^[13]	Ezra Pound publishes Evolutions^[12]	Richard Strauss completes Elektra. The Girl Guides form. Henry Ford produces the Model T.^[12]

1910s

Ralph 124C 41+
Serialized in Modern Electrics
Author	Hugo Gernsback
Country	United States
Language	English
Genre	Science fiction novel
Publication date	1911
Media type	Print (hardback & paperback)
Preceded by	none
Followed by	none

Year	Event	Literary history	Historical events
1910	Thomas Edison's film company produces the first film adaptation of Frankenstein.^[14]	Marie Curie publishes Treatise on Radiography.^[14] Mark Twain dies. Florence Nightingale dies.	Manet and the Post-Impressionists opens at the Grafton Galleries in London. The Futurist Manifesto is published.^[14]
1911	Hugo Gernsback publishes Ralph 124C 41+ in serial form in Modern Electrics.^[11] F. W. Mader publishes Wunderwelten in which a crew of young astronauts travels to Alpha Centauri at faster-than-light speeds.^[14]
1912	J. D. Beresford publishes The Hampdenshire Wonder.^[11] Garrett P. Serviss publishes The Second Deluge.^[11] Edgar Rice Burroughs publishes the novella Under the Moons of Mars.^[11] Arthur Conan Doyle publishes The Lost World, which gives the name to the Lost World subgenre of science fiction. Ironically, it is also one of the last Lost World novels to be published.^[14]		John Jacob Astor, Jacques Futrelle, and William Thomas Stead, all early science fiction authors, die in the sinking of the Titanic.^[14]
1913	Bernhard Kellermann publishes Der Tunnel (The Tunnel) in which a transatlantic tunnel is built, tying North America and Europe together.^[14] Hugo Gernsback ceases publication of Modern Electrics. He then founds Electrical Experimenter.^[14] Paul Scheerbart publishes Lesabendio, ein Asteroidenroman (Lesabendio, An Asteroid Novel).
1914	George Allan England publishes Darkness and Dawn^[11]. H. G. Wells publishes The World Set Free.^[14]		Archduke Franz Ferdinand is assassinated in Serbia.^[14]
1915	Charlotte Perkins Gilman publishes Herland.^[11] Jack London publishes The Scarlet Plague.^[11] Guy Thorne predicts armored tanks in his novel The Cruiser on Wheels.^[15]		The Lusitania is sunk.^[15] Albert Einstein publishes General Theory of Relativity.^[15] Germany develops poison gas weapons.^[15] Zeppelins begin flying.^[15]
1916	Gustav Meyrink publishes The Green Face in Austria.^[15] The film Homonculus depicts an artificial being devoid of a motivating spirit.^[15] Otto Witt launches Hugin, widely considered the first true science fiction magazine.^[15]
1917	Victor Rousseau Emanuel publishes The Messiah of the Cylinder.^[15] The movie Himmelskibet (The Airship) is produced during the middle of World War I.^[15]	T. S. Eliot publishes Prufrock and Other Observations.^[15]	Tanks make their first appearance in World War I.^[15] The United States enters World War I.^[15] Vladimir Lenin leads the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia.^[15]
1918	Abraham Merritt publishes the novella The Moon Pool.^[11] Alraune is produced as a film twice in 1918. One is made in Hungary by Michael Curtiz.^[15] William Hope Hodgson is killed in World War I.	Lytton Strachey publishes Eminent Victorians.^[15]	British women get the vote.^[15] The United States Postal Service begins airmail service between Washington, D.C. and New York.^[15]
1919	City of Endless Night by Milo Hastings is serialized in "True Story" magazine.^[15]		The atom is split for the first time by Ernest Rutherford.^[15] Adolf Hitler spies on the German Workers' Party for the German authorities.^[15]

1920s

The Master Mind of Mars
Cover of the pulp magazine Amazing Stories, featuring Master Mind of Mars
Author	Edgar Rice Burroughs
Cover artist	Frank R. Paul
Country	United States
Language	English
Subject	Barsoom
Genre	Science fiction
Preceded by	The Chessmen of Mars
Followed by	A Fighting Man of Mars

Year	Event	Literary history	Historical events
1920	Karel Čapek publishes R.U.R.: A Fantastic Melodrama.^[11] W. E. B. Du Bois publishes the short story "The Comet".^[11] David Lindsay publishes A Voyage to Arcturus.^[11] The film Der Golem is released.^[16] Argosy and All-Story Weekly combine and become Argosy All-Story Weekly.^[16]
1921	Homer Eon Flint and Austin Hall publish "The Blind Spot" in Argosy All-Story Weekly.^[16] J. D. Beresford publishes Revolution.^[16]
1922	Alexei Tolstoy publishes Aelita.^[16]	T. S. Eliot publishes The Waste Land.^[16] Sinclair Lewis publishes Babbitt.^[16]	Mahatma Gandhi goes to jail.^[16] Benito Mussolini comes to power in Italy.^[16]
1923	E. V. Odle publishes The Clockwork Man.^[11] P. Anderson Graham publishes The Collapse of Homo Sapiens.^[16] Ronald Knox publishes Memories of the Future.^[16] H. G. Wells publishes Men Like Gods.^[16] Hugo Gernsback dedicates an entire issue of the journal Science and Invention to science fiction. This leads directly to the publication of Astounding Stories.^[16]		The United States continues its policy of isolationism.^[16] Inflation explodes in Germany.^[16] Mustafa Kemal is elected President of Turkey.^[16]
1924	Yevgeny Zamyatin publishes We.^[11]
1925	Hugo Gernsback publishes Ralph 124C 41+ as a monograph.^[17]	The New Yorker begins publication.^[17]	Electrical recordings become a reality.^[17] Kodak develops 16mm film stock.^[17] John Logie Baird develops the technology to transmit images by television.^[17] Adolf Hitler publishes Mein Kampf.^[17] Sergei Eisenstein releases the silent film Battleship Potemkin.^[17] The Irish Civil War ends.^[17]
1926	Hugo Gernsback launches Amazing Stories.^[11] Robert M. Coates publishes The Eater of Darkness.^[17] Guy Dent publishes Emperor of the If.^[17] Fritz Lang releases his ground-breaking classic Metropolis.^[17] Thea von Harbou serializes the screenplay of the silent film Metropolis directed by her husband, Fritz Lang.^[17] Edgar Rice Burroughs publishes The Moon Maid.^[17] Charlotte Haldane publishesMan's World.^[17] Reginald Glossup publishes The Orphan of Space.^[17]	A. A. Milne publishes Winnie-the-Pooh.^[17]	Robert H. Goddard successfully launches a liquid-fuel rocket in the United States.^[17] Leon Trotsky is ejected from the Politburo.^[17] Rudolph Valentino dies.^[17]
1927	John Taine publishes Quayle's Invention and The Gold Tooth.^[17]
1928	E. E. Smith publishes The Skylark of Space. Victor Gollancz founds Victor Gollancz Ltd, which publishes science fiction from its very first year onward.^[17]		Joseph Stalin comes to power in the Soviet Union.^[17] Walt Disney releases the first Mickey Mouse cartoon.^[17]
1929	Buck Rogers in the 25th Century begins publication as a comic strip.^[17] Hugo Gernsback coins the term science fiction.^[17] Kay Burdekin publishes The Rebel Passion.^[17] Jack Williamson publishes The Girl from Mars.^[17] S. Fowler Wright publishes The World Below.^[17] Fritz Lang releases the realistic-looking film The Woman in the Moon.^[17]	William Faulkner publishes The Sound and the Fury.^[17]	The Wall Street Crash occurs.^[17] The Graf Zeppelin circumnavigates the globe.^[17]

1930s

Year	Event	Literary history	Historical events
1930	Olaf Stapledon publishes Last and First Men.^[11] The F. E. Smith, 1st Earl of Birkenhead publishes The World in 2030.^[18] John Taine publishes The Iron Star.^[11] Astounding Science-Fiction begins publication.^[11] The film Just Imagine is released; it is badly received and sets science fiction as a film genre back many years.^[18] Science Wonder Stories and Air Wonder Stories merge to become Wonder Stories magazine.^[18] Astounding Stories of Super Science begins publication.^[18]		The Nationalist Socialist Party comes to power in Germany.^[18] Mein Kampf is published in English.^[18] Mahatma Gandhi marches across India in protest of the Salt Tax.^[18]
1931	James Whale releases his classic film adaptation of Frankenstein.^[18] Science and Invention ceases publication.^[18] Astounding Stories of Super Science changes its title to Astounding Stories.^[18]
1932	Aldous Huxley publishes Brave New World.^[11] Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde is made into a film.^[18]		Adolf Hitler is defeated in presidential elections in Germany but holds onto a majority in the Reichstag.^[18] Unemployment riots break out in England.^[18] Franklin D. Roosevelt wins an overwhelming majority in the United States presidential elections.^[18]
1933	John Collier publishes the post-holocaust novel Tom's A-Cold (published as Full Circle in the United States).^[18] James Whale directs the film version of The Invisible Man by H. G. Wells.^[18] Street and Smith purchase Astounding Stories and retool its editorial policy which raises its prominence in the field of science fiction.^[18]		Adolf Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany.^[18] The Hitler Youth is formed in Germany.^[18] Germany and Japan withdraw from the League of Nations.^[18]
1934	Murray Leinster publishes the short story "Sidewise in Time".^[11] Stanley G. Weinbaum publishes the short story "A Martian Odyssey".^[11] The Skylark series by E. E. Smith ends with the publication of Skylark of Valeron.^[18] E. E. Smith begins publication of his Lensman series with "Triplanetary" which is serialized in Amazing magazine.^[18] Jack Williamson begins publication of his Legion of Space series.^[18]
1935	Olaf Stapledon publishes Odd John.^[11] Joseph O'Neill publishes Land under England, a Lost World novel that provides the backdrop for a sharp political satire.^[19] Maurice Renard's Le mains d'Orlac (The Hands of Orlac) is made into the film Mad Love.^[19]	Porgy and Bess by Ira Gershwin opens.^[19]	Germany strips is Jewish citizens of their citizenship.^[19] The Dust Bowl strikes the middle of North America.^[19]
1936	Things to Come, directed by William Cameron Menzies, is released.^[11] Paul Gurk publishes Tuzub 37.^[19] Karel Čapek publishes Valka s mloky (War with the Newts).^[19] Flash Gordon appears on film for the first time.^[19] Wonder Stories is sold off and is recast as Thrilling Wonder Stories taking a definite turn towards stories and images of monsters and adventures.^[19]
1937	Flash Gordon appears in the first book version of the series in Flash Gordon in the Caverns of Mongo.^[19] John W. Campbell, Jr. becomes editor of Astounding Stories; he promptly changes the title to Astounding Science Fiction.^[19]	George Orwell publishes The Road to Wigan Pier.^[19]	The Spanish Civil War erupts.^[19] Germany aligns with Benito Mussolini.^[19] Germany occupies the Rhineland.^[19]
1938	John W. Campbell, Jr., writing under the pseudonym "Don A. Stuart", writes the novella Who Goes There?.^[11] C. S. Lewis publishes Out of the Silent Planet.^[20] Orson Welles dramatises H.G. Wells' War of the Worlds on the radio and causes widespread panic.^[19]		Germany annexes Austria.^[19] Germany occupies the Sudetenland.^[19]
1939	Stanley G. Weinbaum publishes The New Adam.^[11] Startling Stories is launched.^[19]	The Alice in Wonderland series by Lewis Carroll is parodied in Adolf in Blunderland.^[19]	Hitler annexes the rest of Czechoslovakia.^[19] Hitler invades Poland.^[19] France and Britain declare war on Germany.^[19]

1940s

Year	Event	Literary history	Historical events
1940	Robert A. Heinlein publishes the short story "The Roads Must Roll".^[11] Robert A. Heinlein publishes the short story "If This Goes On—".^[11] A. E. van Vogt publishes Slan as a serial; it is later published as a monographic volume in 1946.^[11] Fred Allhoff publishes Lightning in the Night, which served as a warning of what might happen if Hitler won World War II.^[21]		Paris falls to the German army.^[21] Leon Trotsky is assassinated in Mexico by Russian agents.^[21] Walt Disney makes Fantasia.^[21]
1941	Isaac Asimov publishes the short story "Nightfall".^[11] L. Sprague de Camp publishes Lest Darkness Fall.^[11] Robert A. Heinlein publishes the short story "Universe".^[11] Theodore Sturgeon publishes the short story "Microcosmic God".^[11] Phil Stong publishes the first major anthology of science fiction short stories.^[21] Science fiction publishing nearly ceases in England due to severe shortages of paper.^[21] John W. Campbell, Jr. shuts down Unknown to preserve paper so as to keep Astounding Science Fiction in print.^[21]		The United States enters World War II after Japan bombs Pearl Harbor.^[21] Russia enters World War II after Germany invades its Western border.^[21]
1942	Isaac Asimov begins publishing the short stories that later were compiled into his seminal work Foundation.^[11] Robert A. Heinlein writes Beyond the Horizon then ceases writing science fiction to focus on war-related work.^[21] L. Sprague de Camp and Fletcher Pratt publish Land of Unreason.^[21] Vita Sackville-West publishes Grand Canyon.^[21] Austin Tappan Wright publishes Islandia (novel).^[21] Peter Vansittart publishes I am the World.^[21]
1943	The Gremlins is written by Roald Dahl for Walt Disney Productions.^[21] Batman (serial) is released by Columbia Pictures as a 15 episode serial.^[21]		Heavily armed German forces occupy the Warsaw Ghetto.^[21]
1944	C. L. Moore publishes the short story "No Woman Born".^[11] Clifford Simak begins publishing City in serial format in Astounding Science Fiction.^[21] Aldous Huxley publishes Time Must Have a Stop.^[21] Olaf Stapledon publishes Sirius.^[21] Philip Wylie publishes Night Unto Night.^[21]		Adolf Hitler unleashes the V-2 rocket on London in September 1944.^[21]
1945	Murray Leinster publishes the novella First Contact.^[22] A. E. van Vogt publishes The World of Null-A as a serial in Astounding Science Fiction and later as a book in 1948.^[23] C. S. Lewis publishes That Hideous Strength.^[23]	George Orwell publishes Animal Farm (novel).^[23]	The dropping of Atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki end World War II and usher in the Atomic Age.^[23]
1946	The Best of Science Fiction anthology, edited by Groff Conklin, is published.^[22] A. E. van Vogt publishes Slan in book format.^[23] E. E. Smith publishes The Skylark of Space in book format.^[23] McComas and Healy publish Adventures in Time and Space, an anthology of short stories considered seminal in the genre.^[23] Pat Frank publishes Mr. Adam.^[23] New Worlds begins publication in England.^[23]		ENIAC, the world's first electronic computer, is built.^[23]
1947	Robert A. Heinlein publishes Rocket Ship Galileo.^[22] Gnome Press becomes the most successful small press to publish science fiction content.^[23] J. O. Bailey publishes Pilgrims in Space and Time, the first academic analysis of science fiction.^[23] Fantasy Fiction, a short-lived science fiction magazine, begins publication. Despite its short run, it publishes the works of established writers Isaac Asimov, A. E. van Vogt, and Murray Leinster, as well as the first published story by Cordwainer Smith, "Scanners Live in Vain", who had not been able to get published in more established SF magazines.^[23]
1948	Judith Merril publishes the short story "That Only a Mother".^[22] Founded in 1947, Shasta Publishers is publishing works by major SF authors by 1948, including Robert A. Heinlein, L. Sprague de Camp, and Alfred Bester. Shasta rejects L. Ron Hubbard's first Dianetics volume.^[23] Astounding Science Fiction publishes Dianetics after it is rejected by Shasta Publishers.^[23]
1949	Everett Bleiler and T. E. Dikty edit and publish The Best Science Fiction Stories.^[22] George Orwell publishes Nineteen Eighty-Four.^[22] H. Beam Piper publishes the short story "He Walked Around the Horses".^[22] George R. Stewart publishes Earth Abides.^[22] Jack Vance publishes the short story "The King of Thieves".^[22] The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction begins publication.^[22]^[23]		Mao Zedong seizes control of China.^[23] South Africa adopts apartheid.^[23] Albert Einstein publishes Generalized Theory of Gravitation.^[23] Carol Reed directs the British film noir movie The Third Man.^[23]

1950s

Year	Event	Literary history	Historical events
1950	Isaac Asimov publishes I, Robot.^[22] Ray Bradbury publishes The Martian Chronicles.^[22] Judith Merril publishes Shadow on the Hearth.^[22] Galaxy Science Fiction begins publishing.^[22] Destination Moon, directed by Irving Pichel, is released.^[22] Doubleday (publisher) begins publishing science fiction.^[24] The film Destination Moon is released. It is one of the first science fiction, as opposed to horror, films to be produced.^[24] Fifteen new science fiction magazines are established during 1950.^[24]		George Bernard Shaw dies.^[24] The Korean War breaks out.^[24] Thor Heyerdahl launches Kon-Tiki to sail across the Pacific Ocean.^[24]
1951	Ray Bradbury publishes The Illustrated Man.^[22] John Wyndham publishes The Day of the Triffids.^[22] Le Rayon Fantastique, a collection of French science fiction novels, is launched by Éditions Gallimard.^[24]		The Festival of Britain exhibition celebrates innovative British architecture, scientific discoveries, technology, and industrial design.^[24]
1952	Philip José Farmer publishes the short story "The Lovers".^[22] Clifford D. Simak publishes City.^[22] Theodore Sturgeon publishes the short story "The World Well Lost".^[22]	Ballantine Books is founded.^[24]	The United States explodes the first hydrogen bomb at Eniwetok Atoll in the South Pacific Ocean.^[24]
1953	Alfred Bester publishes The Demolished Man, which wins the first Hugo Award for Best Novel.^[22] Ray Bradbury publishes Fahrenheit 451.^[22] Arthur C. Clarke publishes Childhood's End.^[22] Hal Clement publishes Mission of Gravity.^[22] Ward Moore publishes Bring the Jubilee.^[22] Frederik Pohl and C. M. Kornbluth publish The Space Merchants.^[22] Frederik Pohl edits the anthology Star Science Fiction Stories.^[22] Theodore Sturgeon publishes E Pluribus Unicorn.^[22] Theodore Sturgeon publishes More Than Human.^[22] The 1953 World SF Convention awards the first Hugo Award; the award is named after Hugo Gernsback, the pioneering founder of Amazing Stories.^[24] Project Moonbase is released. It is widely considered a disaster and marks the last time that Robert A. Heinlein attempted to work with Hollywood to produce a movie.^[24] Galaxie (French science fiction magazine) begins publishing in France.^[24]
1954	Poul Anderson publishes Brain Wave.^[22] Isaac Asimov publishes The Caves of Steel.^[22] Tom Godwin publishes the short story "The Cold Equations".^[22] Donald Tuck publishes Handbook of Science Fiction and Fantasy, which is still used as a reference resource for scholars of science fiction.^[24] The Présence du futur series is launched by Denoël.^[24] The movie Them! is released.^[24]		The Northwest Vietnamese city of Dien Bien Phu is seized by the Viet Minh in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu.^[24] U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy begins the period of accusation and trials of supposed communists that came to be known as McCarthyism.^[24] Robert Oppenheimer is labeled a "security risk".^[24]
1955	James Blish publishes Earthman, Come Home.^[22] Leigh Brackett publishes The Long Tomorrow.^[22] Arthur C. Clarke publishes the short story "The Star".^[22] William Tenn publishes the collection of short stories Of All Possible Worlds.^[22] Greg Benford and his twin brother launch a fanzine.^[25] This Island Earth is released.^[25] Utopia Magazin is launched in Germany.^[25]
1956	Alfred Bester publishes Tiger! Tiger! which was published two years later in 1957 in the United States under the title The Stars My Destination.^[26] Arthur C. Clarke publishes The City and the Stars.^[26] Robert A. Heinlein publishes Double Star.^[26] Judith Merril edits the anthology SF: The Year's Greatest Science Fiction and Fantasy.^[26] Invasion of the Body Snatchers, directed by Don Siegel, is released.^[26] Forbidden Planet, directed by Fred M. Wilcox, is released;^[26] the robot in the film is bound by Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics.^[25] The Luna science fiction series is launched in Germany; it primarily reproduces existing titles.^[25] Astounding Science Fiction publishes Isaac Asimov's The Naked Sun in serial format.^[25] Galaxy publishes Alfred Bester's The Stars My Destination in serial format.^[25] Fantasy and Science Fiction magazine publishes Robert A. Heinlein's The Door into Summer as a serial.^[25]
1957	Terra, a new series of science fiction publications, is launched in Germany.^[25] Galaxis is founded in Germany.^[25]		Anthony Eden's career ends as a result of the Suez Crisis.^[25] The Soviet Union launches Sputnik 1.^[25] A dog named Laika orbits the Earth in Sputnik 2.^[25]
1958	Brian W. Aldiss publishes Non-Stop in England, which is later released as Starship in the United States.^[26] James Blish publishes A Case of Conscience.^[26] Ivan Yefremov publishes Andromeda.^[26] C. M. Kornbluth dies.^[25] Walter Ernsting launches the Terra-Sonderband imprint.^[25] The Fly is released.^[25] Satellite Science Fiction is launched.^[25]		Wernher von Braun helps the United States launch the Explorer program.^[25]
1959	Philip K. Dick publishes Time Out of Joint.^[26] Robert A. Heinlein publishes Starship Troopers.^[26] Daniel Keyes publishes the novella Flowers for Algernon; the book of the same name is published in 1966.^[26] Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. publishes The Sirens of Titan.^[26] The film The Giant Behemoth is released.^[25] The film On the Beach is released.^[25]		The Soviet Union launches Lunik 1.^[25]

1960s

Year	Event	Literary history	Historical events
1960	Poul Anderson publishes The High Crusade.^[26] Philip José Farmer publishes Strange Relations.^[26] Walter M. Miller, Jr. publishes A Canticle for Leibowitz.^[26] Theodore Sturgeon publishes Venus Plus X.^[26] Kingsley Amis publishes New Maps of Hell, a compilation of his lectures on science fiction given at Princeton University.^[27] George Pal adapts The Time Machine to the big screen.^[27] John W. Campbell begins the process of changing the title of Astounding Science Fiction to Analog Science Fact and Fiction'.'^[27]	Albert Camus dies.^[27] Boris Pasternak dies.^[27]	The first weather satellite is launched.^[27] The Concorde begins to take shape on the drawing boards.^[27]
1961	Gordon R. Dickson publishes Naked to the Stars.^[26] Harry Harrison publishes The Stainless Steel Rat.^[26] Robert A. Heinlein publishes Stranger in a Strange Land.^[26] Zenna Henderson publishes the collection of short stories entitled Pilgrimage: The Book of the People.^[26] Stanisław Lem publishes Solaris in Poland. It is translated into English in 1970.^[26] Cordwainer Smith publishes the short story "Alpha Ralpha Boulevard".^[26] Frederik Pohl takes over as editor for Galaxy and If.^[27] Brian W. Aldiss publishes Hothouse in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction.^[27]		Yuri Gagarin becomes the first human to orbit the Earth.^[27] Rudolf Nureyev defects to the West.^[27] The Berlin Wall is constructed, separating West Berlin from East Berlin.^[27]
1962	J. G. Ballard publishes The Drowned World.^[26] Anthony Burgess publishes A Clockwork Orange Philip K. Dick publishes The Man in the High Castle.^[26] Naomi Mitchison publishes Memoirs of a Spacewoman.^[26] Eric Frank Russell publishes The Great Explosion.^[26] The Manchurian Candidate is released to the big screen.^[27]		Telstar broadcasts the first live transatlantic pictures.^[27]
1963	Pierre Boulle publishes La planète des singes, which is translated as Planet of the Apes.^[27] Doctor Who begins airing in England.^[26] The literary journal Quarber Merkur is launched in Austria.^[27]		President John F. Kennedy is assassinated.^[27] British politician John Profumo is caught in a sex scandal.^[27] The Soviet Union launches the first woman into orbit.^[27]
1964	Philip K. Dick publishes Martian Time-Slip.^[26] Robert A. Heinlein publishes Farnham's Freehold.^[26] James Blish publishes The Issue at Hand under the pseudonym William Atheling.^[27] Michael Moorcock becomes editor of New Worlds in Great Britain.^[27]		Nelson Mandela is imprisoned in South Africa.^[27] The Soviet Union launches Zond 2 to the Moon.^[27] The United States launches Mariner 4 to Mars.^[27]
1965	Philip K. Dick publishes Dr. Bloodmoney.^[26] Harry Harrison publishes The Streets of Ashkelon.^[26] Frank Herbert publishes Dune which wins the Nebula Award for best novel.^[26] Jack Vance publishes Space Opera.^[26] World's Best Science Fiction: 1965, edited by Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr, is published.^[26] Cele Goldsmith Lalli steps down as editor of Amazing Stories and Fantastic Fiction when the two magazines are sold by Ziff Davis to Sol Cohen.^[28]		The United States enters the conflict in Vietnam.^[28] Martin Luther King, Jr. wins the Nobel Peace Prize.^[28]
1966	Samuel R. Delany publishes Babel-17.^[26] Harry Harrison publishes Make Room! Make Room!.^[26] Robert A. Heinlein publishes The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress.^[29] Damon Knight edits Orbit 1, the first in a series of anthologies.^[28]^[29] Keith Roberts publishes The Signaller.^[29] Raumpatrouille – Die phantastischen Abenteuer des Raumschiffes Orion begins broadcast in Germany. Star Trek begins being broadcast in the United States.^[28]^[29] The first Nebula Award is given out.^[28]		The Cultural Revolution begins in China.^[28] The Soviet Luna 9 and American Surveyor 1 space probes successfully land on the Moon.^[28]
1967	Samuel R. Delany publishes The Einstein Intersection.^[29] Harlan Ellison edits the anthology Dangerous Visions.^[29] Roger Zelazny publishes Lord of Light.^[29] The Prisoner begins airing in Great Britain.^[28] Horizons du Fantastique is launched in France.^[28]		Israel goes to war with neighboring Arab states in the Six-Day War.^[28] The Concorde project is revealed to the world.^[28]
1968	John Brunner publishes Stand on Zanzibar.^[29] Philip K. Dick publishes Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?.^[29] Thomas M. Disch publishes Camp Concentration.^[29] Anne McCaffrey publishes Dragonflight.^[29] Judith Merril edits the England Swings SF anthology.^[29] Alexei Panshin publishes Rite of Passage.^[29] Keith Roberts publishes Pavane.^[29] Robert Silverberg publishes Hawksbill Station.^[29] 2001: A Space Odyssey, directed by Stanley Kubrick, is released.^[29] The Molecular Café, an anthology of Russian science fiction, is published in the West.^[28] Nueva Dimension is founded in Spain.^[28]		Martin Luther King, Jr. is assassinated.^[28] The Soviet Union sends in military forces to crush the Prague Spring in Czechoslovakia.^[28] Paris is paralyzed by rioting students.^[28]
1969	Michael Crichton publishes The Andromeda Strain.^[29] Ursula K. Le Guin publishes The Left Hand of Darkness.^[29] Visions of Tomorrow, a short-lived science fiction journal, is founded. While it remains in publication for only one year, it is the first English-language periodical to publish one of Stanisław Lem's short stories.^[28]		Apollo 11 lands on the Moon.^[28] The Woodstock Music & Art Fair takes place.^[28] Charles Manson and his followers commit a series of grizzly murders in Southern California.^[28] With ARPANET the technical foundations for the Internet are laid.^[30]

1970s

Year	Event	Literary history	Historical events
1970	Larry Niven publishes Ringworld.^[29] Marge Piercy publishes Dance the Eagle to Sleep.^[31] George Lucas releases his film THX 1138.^[31]	Allen Lane, the mastermind behind mass market paperbacks, dies.^[31]
1971	Terry Carr edits Universe 1.^[29] Robert Silverberg publishes The World Inside.^[29] Donald A. Wollheim, editor of Ace Books, leaves to establish DAW Books. He uses the opportunity to include topics that were forbidden at Ace, including sex.^[31] C. J. Cherryh begins publishing her books through DAW books.^[31]	Stanley Kubrick releases A Clockwork Orange.^[31]	Great Britain adopts the decimal system.^[31] The Soyuz spacecraft docks with the Salyut space station for the first time. The cosmonauts do not survive re-entry.^[31]
1972	Isaac Asimov publishes The Gods Themselves.^[29] Harlan Ellison edits Again, Dangerous Visions.^[29] Barry Malzberg publishes Beyond Apollo.^[29] Joanna Russ publishes When It Changed.^[29] Arkady and Boris Strugatsky publish Roadside Picnic.^[29] Gene Wolfe publishes The Fifth Head of Cerberus.^[29] The Science Fiction Foundation begins publishing the journal Foundation.^[29] Stanisław Lem's novel Solaris is made into a film.^[31] Ben Bova officially becomes the editor of Analog Science Fiction and Fact after having been running the magazine following John W. Campbell's death.^[31]
1973	Arthur C. Clarke publishes Rendezvous with Rama.^[29] Thomas Pynchon publishes Gravity's Rainbow.^[29] Mack Reynolds publishes Looking Backward from the Year 2000.^[29] James Tiptree, Jr. publishes the collection of short stories Ten Thousand Light-Years from Home.^[29] Ian Watson publishes The Embedding.^[29] The journal Science Fiction Studies begins being published.^[31] The John W. Campbell Memorial Award is established by Harry Harrison and Brian Aldiss.^[31] Brian Aldiss piublishes Billion Year Spree.^[31] Moonbase 3 is released.^[31]		The Vietnam War ends.^[31] Skylab's first crew arrives at the station.^[31] Political tensions in the Middle East cause oil prices to skyrocket 70%.^[31]
1974	Suzy McKee Charnas publishes Walk to the End of the World.^[29] Joe Haldeman publishes The Forever War.^[29] Ursula K. Le Guin publishes The Dispossessed.^[29] SF Magazine begins publication in Japan; it primarily translates works found in Fantasy and Science Fiction magazine.^[31]		Richard Nixon resigns as U.S. President.^[31]
1975	Samuel R. Delany publishes Dhalgren.^[29] Joanna Russ publishes The Female Man.^[29] Pamela Sargent edits Women of Wonder.^[32] Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson publish Illuminatus!.^[32] Gérard Klein edits the first Anthologies de la Science-Fiction in France.^[33] Univers begins publication in France.^[33]		The Soyuz (spacecraft) and Apollo (spacecraft) link up in Earth orbit.^[33] Margaret Thatcher becomes leader of the British Conservative Party.^[33]
1976	Samuel R. Delany publishes Triton.^[32] Marge Piercy publishes Woman on the Edge of Time.^[32] James Tiptree, Jr. publishes the novella Houston, Houston, Do You Read?.^[32] Odyssey Science Fiction magazine is founded and folds after only two issues.^[33] Galileo Magazine is founded and folds after a single issue.^[33]		Mao Zedong dies in China.^[33]
1977	Mack Reynolds publishes After Utopia.^[32] Close Encounters of the Third Kind, directed by Steven Spielberg, is released.^[32] Star Wars, directed by George Lucas, is released.^[32] Collectif is published in France.^[33] Asimov's Science Fiction magazine is founded.^[33]		The first boat people flee Vietnam.^[33]
1978	George H. White publishes his La saga de los Aznar in Spain.^[33] The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams is aired on BBC Radio.^[33] Bob Guccione founds Omni magazine.^[33]
1979	Douglas Adams publishes The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy.^[32] Octavia Butler publishes Kindred.^[32] John Crowley publishes Engine Summer.^[32] Frederik Pohl publishes Gateway.^[32] Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. publishes Slaughterhouse-Five.^[32] Alien, directed by Ridley Scott, is released.^[32] Darko Suvin publishes the translation of his Pour une poetique de la science-fiction as Metamorphoses of Science Fiction. It later receives the Pilgrim Award.^[33] The first edition of The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction is published.^[34] Star Trek: The Motion Picture, directed by Robert Wise, is released.		Three Mile Island releases radioactive gas into the surrounding countryside.^[33] Margaret Thatcher becomes the British Prime Minister.^[33]

1980s

Year	Event	Historical Events
1980	Gregory Benford publishes Timescape.^[32] Gene Wolfe publishes The Shadow of the Torturer, the first volume of The Book of the New Sun series.^[32] Tor Books is founded by Tom Doherty after he leaves Ace Books.^[35] George Lucas releases his film The Empire Strikes Back.^[35] SF et Quotidien is published in France.^[35]	Ronald Reagan becomes President of the United States.^[35] Solidarność trade union is founded in Poland.^[35]
1981	C. J. Cherryh publishes Downbelow Station.^[32] William Gibson publishes the short story "The Gernsback Continuum".^[32] Vernor Vinge publishes the short story "True Names".^[32] Serge Brussolo publishes Sommeil de sang (Blood Sleep) in France.^[35] The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy is translated to film.^[35] Interzone begins publication in Great Britain.^[35]	The Space Shuttle Columbia is launched.^[35] Prince Charles gets married to Diana, Princess of Wales.^[35]
1982	Brian Aldiss publishes Helliconia Spring.^[32] Blade Runner, directed by Ridley Scott, is released.^[32] Steven Spielberg releases E.T..^[35] John Carpenter releases a remade version of The Thing (1982 film).^[35]	Great Britain goes to war with Argentina in the Falklands.^[35] Israel goes to war with Lebanon.^[35]
1983	David Brin publishes Startide Rising.^[32] Bluejay Books is set up as an imprint of St. Martin's Press.^[35] Return of the Jedi is released.^[35] The mini-series V airs.^[35] Analog serializes Greg Bear's book Blood Music.^[35]	Ronald Reagan proposes the Star Wars Missile Defense System.^[35]
1984	Octavia Butler publishes the short story "Bloodchild".^[32] Samuel R. Delany publishes Stars in My Pocket Like Grains of Sand.^[32] Gardner Dozois edits The Year's Best Science Fiction: First Annual Collection.^[32] Suzette Haden Elgin publishes Native Tongue.^[32] William Gibson publishes Neuromancer.^[32] Gwyneth Jones publishes Divine Endurance.^[32] Kim Stanley Robinson publishes the short story "The Lucky Strike", which was reprinted in the collection of short stories entitled The Planet on the Table in 1986, and the novel The Wild Shore.^[32] Frank Herbert's Dune is brought to the cinemas by David Lynch.^[35]	The Human Immunodeficiency Syndrome (HIV) is named.^[35]
1985	Margaret Atwood publishes The Handmaid's Tale, which wins the first Arthur C. Clarke Award for Best Novel in 1987.^[32] Greg Bear publishes Blood Music and Eon.^[32] Orson Scott Card publishes Ender's Game.^[32]^[36] Lewis Shiner and Bruce Sterling publish the short story "Mozart in Mirrorshades".^[32] Bruce Sterling publishes Schismatrix.^[32] Kurt Vonnegut publishes Galápagos.^[32] Iain Banks publishes Walking on Glass.^[36] Back to the Future is released in the movie theaters.^[36]	Mikhail Gorbachev becomes head of state of the Soviet Union.^[36] The Rainbow Warrior, a Greenpeace Ship, is sunk by French secret agents.^[36]
1986	Lois McMaster Bujold publishes Ethan of Athos.^[32] Orson Scott Card publishes Speaker for the Dead.^[32] Ken Grimwood publishes Replay.^[37] Pamela Sargent publishes The Shore of Women.^[37] Joan Slonczewski publishes A Door into Ocean.^[37] The Arthur C. Clarke Award is given out for the first time; The Handmaid's Tale by Margaret Atwood wins.^[36] Aliens is released.^[36] Charles C. Ryan founds and edits Aboriginal SF.^[36] Frank Miller publishes the graphic novel Batman: The Dark Knight Returns.^[36]	The Space Shuttle Challenger explodes on take-off, killing all aboard.^[36] The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant power plant goes critical in the Soviet Union.^[36]
1987	Iain M. Banks publishes Consider Phlebas.^[37] Octavia Butler publishes Dawn: Xenogenesis I.^[37] Pat Cadigan publishes Mindplayers.^[37] Judith Moffett publishes Pennterra.^[37] Lucius Shepard publishes Life During Wartime.^[37] Michael Swanwick publishes Vacuum Flowers.^[37] Arkady and Boris Strugatsky are allowed to leave Russia to attend their first WorldCon in Great Britain.^[36] Star Trek: The Next Generation launches on television in the United States.^[36] Alan Moore publishes his Watchmen in the U.S. comics market.^[36]	Seventy countries sign the Montreal Accord pledging to reduce Chlorofluorocarbon emissions.^[36]
1988	John Barnes publishes Sin of Origin.^[37] Sheri S. Tepper publishes The Gate to Women's Country.^[37] Robert A. Heinlein dies.^[36] Red Dwarf begins airing in Great Britain.^[36]	Ronald Reagan travels to the Soviet Union and signs a major agreement to reduce the United States and Russia's nuclear arsenals.^[36]
1989	Orson Scott Card publishes The Folk of the Fringe.^[37] Geoff Ryman publishes The Child Garden.^[37] Dan Simmons publishes Hyperion.^[37] Bruce Sterling publishes the short story "Dori Bangs".^[37] Sheri S. Tepper publishes Grass.^[37] Locus Magazine documents a 50% per year increase in the number of science fiction books being published.^[36] Doctor Who is cancelled.^[36]	The Berlin Wall is torn down.^[36]

1990s

Year	Event	Historical Events
1990	Colin Greenland publishes Take Back Plenty.^[37] Kim Stanley Robinson publishes Pacific Edge.^[37] Sheri S. Tepper publishes Raising the Stones.^[37] Brian Stableford publishes his first Werewolves of London series.^[38] Total Recall is released.^[38] Eidolon is launched in Australia.^[38]	Nelson Mandela is released from prison after 27 years of captivity.^[38] Boris Yeltsin is elected President of Russia.^[38] Iraq invades Kuwait.^[38] East and West Germany are reunited.^[38] The Channel Tunnel workers digging from both ends meet in the middle.^[38] The first World Wide Web-site comes online.^[39]
1991	Stephen Baxter publishes Raft.^[37] Emma Bull publishes Bone Dance.^[37] Pat Cadigan publishes the short story "Dispatches from the Revolution".^[37] Michael Crichton publishes Jurassic Park.^[37] Gwyneth Jones publishes White Queen.^[37] Brian Stableford publishes Sexual Chemistry: Sardonic Tales of the Genetic Revolution.^[37] James Cameron releases Terminator 2: Judgment Day.^[38]	Operation Desert Storm launches the beginning of the Gulf War.^[38]
1992	Greg Egan publishes Quarantine.^[37] Nancy Kress publishes the short story "Beggars in Spain".^[37] Maureen McHugh publishes China Mountain Zhang.^[37] Kim Stanley Robinson publishes Red Mars.^[37] Neal Stephenson publishes Snow Crash.^[37] Vernor Vinge publishes A Fire Upon the Deep.^[37] Connie Willis publishes Doomsday Book.^[37] Isaac Asimov dies.^[38]	Yugoslavia dissolves into a number of smaller states.^[40] Political reforms in South Africa unfold.^[40] Riots break out in Los Angeles after police are caught beating Rodney King on film.^[40]
1993	Eleanor Arnason publishes Ring of Swords.^[37] Nicola Griffith publishes Ammonite.^[37] Peter F. Hamilton publishes Mindstar Rising.^[37] Nancy Kress publishes Beggars in Spain.^[37] Paul J. McAuley publishes Red Dust.^[37] Paul Park publishes Coelestis.^[37]
1994	Kathleen Ann Goonan publishes Queen City Jazz.^[37] Elizabeth Hand publishes Waking the Moon.^[37] Mike Resnick publishes A Miracle of Rare Design.^[41] Melissa Scott publishes Trouble and Her Friends.^[41] Stargate is released in cinemas.^[40]	Multiracial elections are held for the first time in South Africa.^[40] Civil war breaks out in Rwanda.^[40]
1995	Greg Egan publishes Permutation City.^[41] Ken MacLeod publishes The Star Fraction.^[41] Melissa Scott publishes Shadow Man.^[41] Neal Stephenson publishes The Diamond Age.^[41]
1996	Orson Scott Card publishes Pastwatch: The Redemption of Christopher Columbus.^[41] Kathleen Ann Goonan publishes The Bones of Time.^[41] Mary Doria Russell publishes The Sparrow.^[41]
1997	Wil McCarthy publishes Bloom.^[41] Paul J. McAuley publishes Child of the River.^[41]
1998	Graham Joyce and Peter F. Hamilton publish the short story "Eat Reecebread".^[41] Keith Hartman publishes the short story "Sex, Guns, and Baptists".^[41] Nalo Hopkinson publishes Brown Girl in the Ring.^[41] Ian R. MacLeod publishes the short story "The Summer Isles".^[41] Brian Stableford publishes Inherit the Earth.^[41] Bruce Sterling publishes Distraction.^[41] Howard Waldrop publishes "US".^[41]
1999	Greg Bear publishes Darwin's Radio.^[41] Neal Stephenson publishes Cryptonomicon.^[41] Vernor Vinge publishes A Deepness in the Sky.^[41] Matrix is released.^[42]

2000s

Year	Event	Historical Events
2000	Nalo Hopkinson publishes Midnight Robber, a coming-of-age story set in a Caribbean-settled colony world.^[41] Ursula K. Le Guin publishes The Telling.^[41] Ken MacLeod publishes Cosmonaut Keep.^[41]
2001	Terry Bisson publishes the short story "The Old Rugged Cross".^[41] Ted Chiang publishes the short story "Hell is the Absence of God".^[41] John Clute publishes Appleseed.^[41] Mary Gentle publishes Ash: A Secret History.^[41] Maureen McHugh publishes Nekropolis.^[41] China Miéville publishes Perdido Street Station.^[41] Joan Slonczewski publishes Brain Plague.^[41] Douglas Adams dies	September 11 - The United States is attacked by Al Qaeda.
2002	Greg Egan publishes Schild's Ladder.^[41] Jon Courtenay Grimwood publishes Effendi.^[41] Kim Stanley Robinson publishes The Years of Rice and Salt.^[41]
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007	Oxford University Press publishes what is said to be "the first historical dictionary devoted to science fiction": Brave New Words.^[43]
2008	Arthur C. Clarke dies
2009

References

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 James, Edward; Mendlesohn, Farah (2003). Edward James and Farah Mendlesohn, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Science Fiction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. xx. ISBN 978-0-521-01657-5.
1 2 Stableford, Brian (2003). "Science fiction before the genre". In Edward James and Farah Mendlesohn. The Cambridge Companion to Science Fiction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-521-01657-5.
1 2 Stableford, Brian (2003). "Science fiction before the genre". In Edward James and Farah Mendlesohn. The Cambridge Companion to Science Fiction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-521-01657-5.
1 2 3 Stableford, Brian (2003). "Science fiction before the genre". In Edward James and Farah Mendlesohn. The Cambridge Companion to Science Fiction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-521-01657-5.
1 2 3 4 5 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 36. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
1 2 Willis, Martin (2006). Mesmerists, Monsters, and Machines: Science Fiction and the Cultures of Science in the Nineteenth Century. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press. pp. 29–30.
1 2 Stableford, Brian (2003). "Science fiction before the genre". In Edward James and Farah Mendlesohn. The Cambridge Companion to Science Fiction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-521-01657-5.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 37. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
1 2 3 4 Stableford, Brian (2003). "Science fiction before the genre". In Edward James and Farah Mendlesohn. The Cambridge Companion to Science Fiction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-521-01657-5.
1 2 3 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 42. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 James, Edward; Mendlesohn, Farah (2003). Edward James and Farah Mendlesohn, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Science Fiction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. xxi. ISBN 978-0-521-01657-5.
1 2 3 4 5 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 43. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
↑ Roberts, Adam (2006). The History of Science Fiction. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-333-97022-5.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 46. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 47. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 50. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 51. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 56. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 57. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
↑ Roberts, Adam (2006). The History of Science Fiction. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-333-97022-5.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 64. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 James, Edward; Mendlesohn, Farah (2003). Edward James and Farah Mendlesohn, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Science Fiction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. xxii. ISBN 978-0-521-01657-5.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 65. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 68. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 69. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 James, Edward; Mendlesohn, Farah (2003). Edward James and Farah Mendlesohn, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Science Fiction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. xxiii. ISBN 978-0-521-01657-5.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 72. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 73. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 James, Edward; Mendlesohn, Farah (2003). Edward James and Farah Mendlesohn, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Science Fiction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. xxiv. ISBN 978-0-521-01657-5.
↑ Stewart, William. "ARPANET -- The First Internet". livinginternet.com. Retrieved 5 July 2015.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 78. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 James, Edward; Mendlesohn, Farah (2003). Edward James and Farah Mendlesohn, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Science Fiction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. xxv. ISBN 978-0-521-01657-5.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 79. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
↑ Debnath, Neela (11 December 2011). "8 'The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction' makes internet debut". The Independent. Retrieved 5 July 2015.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 86. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 87. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 James, Edward; Mendlesohn, Farah (2003). Edward James and Farah Mendlesohn, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Science Fiction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. xxvi. ISBN 978-0-521-01657-5.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 92. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
↑ Berners-Lee, Tim. "Pre-W3C Web and Internet Background". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 21 April 2009.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Clute, John (1995). Science Fiction: the Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 93. ISBN 0-7894-0185-1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 James, Edward; Mendlesohn, Farah (2003). Edward James and Farah Mendlesohn, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Science Fiction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. xxvii. ISBN 978-0-521-01657-5.
↑ Anders, Charlie Jane (20 November 2012). "21 Pictures that Sum Up the Whole History of Science Fiction". Retrieved 5 July 2015.
↑ "Brave New Words". Retrieved 5 July 2015.

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